Jit in Indian Automobile Industry

INTRODUCTION Just In Time: The traditional concepts of Quality and customer satisfaction have been challenged in the recent years. Customer choices and perceptions have also been changing continuously. Japanese manufacturers were the first to meet these challenges by introducing many innovations in manufacturing systems and management, one of which is the philosophy of â€Å"Just in Time†. Just-in-time (JIT) refers to a collection of practices that is designed to eliminate waste and achieve manufacturing excellence. These organizational practices encompass the entire logistics flow of materials from purchasing through production and distribution. The elements of JIT may include shared product design with suppliers and customers, movement toward single sourcing, proximate suppliers and customers, reduced set-up times, preventive maintenance, reliance on analytic tools to identify sources of defects and plant optimization layout (re)configurations, among others Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing systems have attracted the attention of industries all over the world. The perceptible impact of JIT lies in attaining productivity and quality standards. The real challenge before Indian managers is to establish priorities among potential JIT techniques to achieve best possible advantage of JIT implementation in Indian industries.. With the variety of products on offer increasing with customization and evolving customer needs, it is but important that a manufacturing facility embraces the advantages of JIT in making the operations lean and flexible. Indian Automobile Industry: India currently has approximately 40 million vehicles. In February 2009, monthly sales of passenger cars in India exceeded 100,000 units. Current low penetration, rising prosperity and the increasing affordability of private vehicles along with importance to exports offer a healthy prospectus for the Indian automobile industry. (Source: http://www. kpmg. de/docs/Auto_survey. pdf) Several Indian automobile manufacturers such as Tata Motors, Maruti Suzuki and Mahindra and Mahindra, have expanded their domestic and international operations. India's robust economic growth led to the further expansion of its domestic automobile market which attracted significant India-specific investment by multinational automobile manufacturers. Due to strong Global competition Indian companies started focusing on adopting new techniques and technologies which enabled manufactures to improve their processes and products JIT IN AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY OF OTHER COUNTRIES Many countries have got leverage by implementing JIT techniques in their respective automobile industries. Peter Turnbul, [1] analyzes the trends in the UK automotive industry during the 1980’s, giving special focus to the adoption of JIT and TQM principles. This includes development from within the organization and relations between suppliers. Also the implications of adopting Japanese techniques on Information systems have also been looked into. It was found out in the study that Japan was way ahead of UK and US in terms of productivity and Quality in the cars manufactured due to successful implementation of JIT and TQM techniques and US and UK companies are gradually bridging this gap. Bo Hou, [2] conducted a research on the benefits and difficulties faced in implementing JIT for an automotive company in China. An international automotive company with factory located in China was taken for the Case study, examining the pre and post JIT implementation experiences. In order to collect data Semi-structured interviews were organized. Most interviewee’s support that proper design of information systems could assist JIT systems. According to the interviews, Kanban is a primary management method in the case company’s JIT model. It was found after the interviews that inventory can be maintained at a reasonably low level. Performance indicators have been employed to examine the achievement of suppliers in quality, on-time delivery etc. , in order to encourage suppliers to participate in the JIT program. JIT IMPLEMENTATION IN INDIA Several Indian companies have initiated JIT implementation into their systems or are claiming to have implemented many key features if JIT. While studying the implementation of JIT in India the following factors have to be considered. 1) Size of the firm ) Indian economy (only opening up in early 1990’s) 3) How MNC’s having manufacturing operations in India are Implementing JIT In a Survey of JIT practices conducted by Mahadevan[3], Questionnaires were sent to 400 companies but only 43 of them responded usefully. Fourteen critical factors were identified and participating organizations were asked whether these factors were important for JIT implementation in their firm s. Quality circles and cellular manufacturing have been rated low while TQM was rated very high. Vikas Kumar [4], explains the interrelationship between the different JIT elements. According to him the elements of JIT important to India are Buffer stock removal, Cellular manufacturing, Kanban and Error prevention Garg D [5] conducts a case study in JIT implementation of an Indian tractor assembly. It started implementing JIT purchasing in the mid 1980s. Initially, the company received discouraging results in almost all the areas for several years. Later on everything was streamlined and management began achieving significant results in terms of reductions in inventory, material movement, space, manpower, work in process and lead time, and an increase in productivity and quality. It can be said that in spite of old machinery, the company is sustaining its competitiveness in the tractor market by applying JIT. Vikas [6] conducted a survey on 34 Indian firms with the aim to find: 1) Those elements of JIT that might be difficult to implement in Indian Industry. These have been found to be Buffer stock removal, Error prevention, Frequent and reliable delivery, Kanban system, Multi functional worker, short lead time, Small lot size, Zero defect etc. ) Reason for slow implementation of JIT in India which have been found to be High cost of implementation, Informal and casual Auditing, Lack of support from suppliers, Lack of training, Lack of understanding of JIT techniques, shortage of multi functional workers Garg D [5] explains that the key steps in JIT implementation were: extensive training of employees on pull concepts; identification of key performance parameters; new layouts based on U-shaped cells ( wherever applicable) ; standardization of operations; a mai ntenance plan for each machine; housekeeping; visual control; and multi-skill training. Vikas Kumar [4], Several Indian industries are implementing the JIT with belief that it would be helpful to face the global competition. Yet, its effectiveness would depend upon qualities, attitudes and values of Indian work force. The paper gives focus to work culture of the organization. Some of the elements of work culture desirable for JIT are flexible workforce, Cross training, long term employment, Job enlargement and Labor unions, Work force involvement etc. Benefits Vikas Kumar [4] identified that the Potential benefits of JIT include reduced setup cost, labor cost, and move distances According to Chandra[7] the major benefits of JIT manufacturing system in ascending order are Reduction in inventory, Quality improvement, Increased productivity, Increased profit margin, Improved competitive position. Vikas Kumar [6] Highlights the most expected benefits of JIT which are Improved equipment utilization, improved quality control, worker efficiency, inventory turnover, flexibility, productivity, Profit margin, Team work, Low scrap rate etc Disadvantages of JIT Some of the disadvantages of JIT as highlighted by Vikas [6] are: * Implementation if JIT does not automatically translate to profits as many direct and indirect costs are involved in JIT implementation. Also JIT requires appropriate fit between manufacturing activities, organizational design, processes etc. * JIT programs need continuous check and control for sustained improvement * The timely of delivery of goods is extremely important which might be difficult to achieve in some parts of India * JIT may demand unrealistic commitment from employees. Managerial powers are extended to the workers JIT IN INDIAN AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY With respect to the Indian Automobile Industry JIT purchasing, a few elements of JIT production and JIT Logistics are given focus in this research paper. Purchasing In industries like the automobiles, where the cost of raw material accounts for almost 50-60% of the cost of the final product, Purchasing is a key element to focus for cost reduction [Haritha Saranga (8)]. According to Sultan Singh. 9] Purchasing involves determining the need, selecting the supplier, and arriving at proper price, terms and conditions, issuing the contract or order and to follow-up to ensure proper delivery on time According to Sultan Singh, Dixit Garg. [10] The traditional approach to purchasing is at the root of many problems that business faces today. High inventory levels, soaring costs, adverse relationships with suppliers and quality issues which either stop production or results in poor products are just a few of the pr oblems with the current way of purchasing JIT Purchasing Sultan Singh. [9] has found that Just-in –Time Purchasing has received an increasing amount of attention throughout the world due to its potential for quality improvement and cost saving. Jocclyn Drolet. [10] found that many studies indicate that the JIT purchasing function is of paramount importance for successful JIT implementation According to Sultan Singh, Dixit Garg. [10] The four basic principles of JIT purchasing are: * Elimination of waste * Employees involvement in decision making * Supplier participation Total quality control Sultan Singh. [9] Found that JIT purchasing has been implemented in many industries of several countries such as United States, United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, and Korea etc. Today many reputed Indian industries have also switched to the Japanese JIT Purchasing concept to improve their product quality and productivity. In traditional purchasing importance is given mainly to the price of the product. Supplier relationship building, quality, deliv ery time, supplier satisfaction etc are in the back seat. Sultan Singh. 9] States that Japanese JIT Purchasing is an uninterrupted flow of 100% acceptable materials delivered on due dates and time at optimal cost 100% of time. In JIT purchasing environment purchasing is carried out in small lots with frequent deliveries in small standard containers used to hold exact quantity and to the required specifications from a nearby local single supplier with a long-term contract. The company relies more on performance specifications Consistent quality and delivery performance is most important parameters in the supplier evaluation while price is an important one. This area includes supplier’s management, inspection of incoming raw materials/ semi finished / maintenance components etc. The expectations of the buying firm in JIT Purchasing Dixit Garg [5] conducted a survey to identify the important attributes of JIT Purchasing with respect to the Indian Context. The importance of JIT purchasing attributes in a decreasing order as were High Quality, Mutual trust and Co-operation, Reliable delivery, Exact quantity and Increased customer support. Jocclyn Drolet. 11] Stated that the most frequently mentioned benefits are the reduction in lead times, the decrease in inventory levels, waste elimination, and improved quality of incoming parts, raw materials and the delivery process. In fact, these four benefits have been so widely cited in analytical studies, and cross validated in empirical studies, that we believe that they may no longer belong to the domain of hypothetical benefits but must be taken as factual benefits. Sultan Singh, Dixit G arg. [2] States that in JIT Purchasing no percentage of rejects from supplier is acceptable. The supplier is also encouraged to be more innovative. Jocclyn Drolet. [11] Stated that some of the success factors of JIT purchasing are JIT supplying Partnership, Restructuring supplier network, Quality of purchased products, Long term and exclusive agreement with suppliers, Proximity etc. He emphasizes that partnership is a catalyst for other JIT purchasing success factors Problems encountered in JIT purchasing implementation in India Sultan Singh. [9] Found that most serious problems, however, are not operational in nature. They are â€Å"people problems†- stemming from attitude and orientation, past experience and practices, and the passive factors of interpersonal relations. The suppliers may not fully support JIT purchasing program because of following reasons: * Lack of incentives for suppliers to adopt JIT delivery. * Lack of commitment from buyers. * Considerable strain on suppliers on JIT delivery. Sultan Singh. [9] Has found Evidences which shown that JIT purchasing can be beneficial in Indian context. The supplier is encouraged to be more innovative. He is given â€Å"loose specifications â€Å". The company relies more on performance specifications than on product design. Counting and receiving inspection of incoming parts is eliminated. Formal paper work is reduced to minimum delivery schedule or quantity can be changed by simple telephone calls/fax/telex message. Supplier is evaluated by consistence in quality, delivery performance and price. It can be concluded that JIT Purchasing is a key element for the successful implementation of JIT. The benefits of JIT purchasing can be summarized as reduction in lead time and inventory levels, improved quality of raw materials and better delivery process. Also there are increased supplier participation and employee involvements. Many companies in different countries have successfully implemented JIT purchasing. Some of the problems which Indian companies encountered were Lack of support from suppliers, Lack of support and commitment from Top management, Low product Quality, Employees resistance to change and Lack of communication. Maruti is focusing on Supplier development and sharing its quality and manufacturing practices with them. Mahindra and Mahindra is now working to minimize supply constraints through advanced capacity planning, long term contract with suppliers and capacity enhancement. JIT Production According to Vikas[4], The major elements of JIT production in Indian context include Buffer stock removal, Cellular manufacturing, Kanban, Error prevention and others. In this research paper the attributes taken for study are Cellular Manufacturing and Kanban. Cellular Manufacturing Mahadevan [12] infers that there has been an increasing demand for more variety in the recent years thereby pushing volumes down. It is estimated that 70 % of manufacturing industries will have mid-volume, mid-variety scenario. Cellular manufacturing provides a solution for the mentioned situation. According to Frost ; Sullivan [13] Cellular manufacturing is based on the Group Technology concept and involves the use of work cells. A Work Cell is a group of equipment and workstations arranged in the logical sequence of production, which can produce a product (or part of a product). To successfully maintain One-piece flow in manufacturing cells companies employ quick change over techniques The key factors that affect the design of an efficient cell can be grouped broadly as the number of process required, number of products that fit into the cell, market segments/requirement, and degree of automation. Mahadevan [12] mentions the benefits of Cellular Manufacturing as: * Production planning and control become easier as it is similar to breaking the Manufacturing process into smaller units which are independent and more manageable. * Material handling and traceability becomes easier as materials seldom go outside the respective cells for processing. Work enrichment: Employees would be in a position to better relate to the workplace and make improvements The benefits as mentioned by Frost ; Sullivan[13] are: improved resource [both man and machine] utilization reduced lead times, improved product quality, better space utilization, lesser blocked capital in inventory, and an overall improved work space. Timothy[14] identifies the disadvantages of cellular manufacturing as: * Increased capital expenditure * Decreased machine utilization * A breakdown can cause work stoppage in cell Shishir Bhat [15] analyses the impact of cellular manufacturing in a Gear manufacturing Machine shop. The evaluation was done based on two outputs, throughput and flow time. It was found that the average monthly throughput [order completed in a month]for Main Gears before implementation of Cellular Manufacturing was 59. 5 and that after implementation was 90. 5. Also the average flow time [man hours a product spends on shop floor ] for main gears reduced from 58 to 30. The paper shows that when a job shop manufactures a group of products with similar characteristics and stable demand, Cellular Manufacturing is an effective way for performance improvements. Kanban Kanban is a system of continuous supply of components, parts and supplies, such that workers have what they need, where they need it, when they need it. Kanban facilitates elimination of waste and is one of the most powerful tools of the â€Å"Toyota Production System†. Kanban is designed for quick response to actual consumption and ensures material availability at all times even in the face of temporary demand swings. Improved material availability helps achieve agility and flexibility in production. Kanban Systems are usually custom designed for each client and each item. A good design takes cognizance of all relevant factors such as consumption level, lead time, transit time, optimum shipping lot, and desired delivery frequency. It can be quickly adjusted in response to seasonality of demand. Inventory reduction is regarded as one of the key strategic levers to improve productivity and profitability of the firm in theory and practice (Lieberman and Demeester 1999, Chen et al, 2005). Kanban which facilitates visual control was originally designed for manual operation. This encourages employee involvement at all levels. However it can be integrated with any ERP system. Many tasks can then be automated, thus increasing the speed of material flow and accuracy of transactions. B. Vijaya Ramnath,C. Elanchezhian and R. Kesavan [16] wrote a paper which deals with implementation of lean manufacturing in Engine valve machining cell in a leading auto components manufacturing industry in the South India. The main objective of the paper was to present an overview of manufacturing wastes and introduce the tools and techniques that are used to transform a company into a high performing lean enterprise. Value stream mapping was a main tool used to identify the opportunities for various lean techniques. One of the methods used for reduction of waste was the Kanban system. A Kanban job Flow is arrived at which is used for building the future state of Value stream mapping. The elimination and or reducing of wastes is by making the process improvements in the current manufacturing line by adopting some lean tools like JIT, set up time reduction, WIP reduction etc. JIT Logistics Today Indian Automobile players seek to increase their global footprint and supply chain for many of these companies extends across several countries. Hence Logistics is a key area Indian Automobile companies are focusing on. According to Kee-hung Lai. [17] Just-in-Time (JIT) which has been effective in manufacturing operations can also contribute to cost and service advantages in Logistics. However, the potential of JIT has not been widely recognized in logistics. Kee-hung Lai. [17] has identified the major areas in Logistics in which JIT can be applied such as 1) Transportation management 2) order processing 3) Inventory management 4) Customer service, and a number of supporting lements including materials handling, packaging, purchasing and warehousing. 1) Transport Management: Typically materials were ordered in large lot shipments to obtain economies of scale. Similarly full truckloads or railcars were more efficient. For less than full truckloads loads of different companies having similar destinations were combined. Ken alternburg. [18] States that In JIT Transport all the three parties i. e. the supplier, the carrier and th e customer work more closely with one another. One option is formation of Transport partnerships just like supplier partnerships. The carriers would be single source for a family of businesses that will treat these carriers as in-house carriers. In some JIT Environments the parts manufacturing facility is constructed at or near the final assembly plant, allowing small deliveries of parts to be made with greater control over timeliness. Ken alternburg. [18] Suggests that where local manufacturing is not feasible, closed loop transportation is employed in which delivery trucks make stops at various suppliers on a predetermined schedule. Disposable packaging can be replaced with reusable containers and racking compatible with assembly line use, eliminating the costs of removing and disposing of packaging materials and simplifying and speeding the loading and unloading processes Materials can be unloaded at or near final point of use in JIT System as inspection is eliminated. Costs associated with equipment used to speed the delivery process, such as specially configured trucks, containerization, and unloading equipment, are offset by improvements in efficiency as implied by Ken alternburg. [18] Ken alternburg. [18] States that JIT environment has affected transportation providers, requiring them to change and streamline their methods of operation, and make long-term investments in technology, 2) Order Processing: According to Kee-hung Lai. [17] JIT adopts technologies such as Logistical Information System [LIS], often in the form of Electronic Data Interchange [EDI], Internet, Value Added Network etc so that different parties in the logistics processes can gain access to the needed information for decision making 3) Customer service: Kee-hung Lai. 17] states that In JIT logistics, all the activities that take up motion time, for example, order picking, shipment arranging, transporting and so on, need to be managed efficiently. The aim is to meet customer service requirements at the lowest possible cost KPMG conducted a survey on the Indian Automotive supply chain to analyze the key challenges faced by different sections of the Industry, identify the areas that need attentio n and also identify opportunities. A primary survey was done among the heads of supply chain of some major Indian Auto companies. KPMG [19]) The participants of the survey identified the following as the key challenges in order of priority: Integrating the end-to-end supply chain and managing it as a single integrated entity: While past efforts of OEMs have been focused on streamlining and improving different areas of the supply chain independently, through efforts in dealer management, operations planning, vendor rationalization, IT package implementation etc, it is expected that the linking up of these activities is expected to provide significant benefits to players Managing Inbound Logistics/JIT Supplies: is a key concern which faces challenges related to reliability of data, lead time and absence of quality logistics players on the upstream side. Respondents felt that as OEM and Auto component players become more global in nature it would have a significant impact on automotive supply chain. Managing costs: Cost, Quality and Timely delivery continue to become the key concern area for players. Many OEM’s have implemented JIT inbound logistics which is not by increased visibility across the supply chain and improved planning, it has only resulted in the burden of inventory getting shifted from OEMs to their Tier-I vendors. The Key initiatives taken up by the companies to address these challenges according to KPMG [19]) are: Increased Investment in IT and processes: Implement Integrated IT systems [such as ERP], but survey revealed that they were not able to leverage on such systems as their business process were not streamlined or aligned with the needs of the IT System. Vendor/Dealer rationalization: Many respondents agreed that Indian Industry has not evolved into fully tierized structure where Tier-I vendors take on responsibility for modules / sub-assemblies Outsourcing to logistics service providers: Outsource key activities along the supply chain to logistics players, in an effort to reduce costs and increase focus on their customers and core activities. Most OEMs and large Tier-I suppliers have already outsourced their outbound logistics activities. These activities include carrying out ‘milk runs’ to collect and deliver parts to OEMs on a daily basis, transferring materials across hubs and warehousing/inventory management. Key logistics players have started maintaining warehouses in close proximity to OEMs’ plants, and supplying materials on a JIT basis. Related services being provided by large third party logistics service providers (3PLs) include consolidation of materials, packaging, incoming inspection, cleaning, etc (KPMG [19]) JIT at Maruti Udyog Limited: Maruti was the first Indian company where Japanese Manufacturing culture was implemented from top to bottom. At the Maruti factory in Gurgaon the eight typical wastages at each operational point (over-production, man movement, material movement, idle time of  operator,  work-in-process, machine  availability,  waiting  time and  needless  processing) had been measured by observation and even videos. The bottlenecks have been identified and a lot of work has been done to streamline the process. In 1995, when Maruti had 4,800employees, it was producing at the rate of 730 cars a day. Later with 4,500 employees, the plant was producing at the rate of 1,700 cars a day. Simultaneously, the supply chain system is being modified. A delivery instruction system places orders with the vendors for the next day's production target. Maruti is now working with an inventory of four hours maximum for local items and six days average for imported materials. The inventory to sales turnover ratio, on the scale of 100 in 1999-2000, is now down to 41. Maruti has also started working with its vendors  to reduce their cost of  production so that its own cost can be reduced. It has also launched a quality enhancement scheme, called the Quality Gate system. Maruti has implemented JIT for some of its major suppliers. Some others are in the process of doing so. There is a stress on quality in this highly competitive industry. The bargaining power of suppliers of some components is high, because of capacity constraints. This makes them accept only large orders, and therefore makes it difficult for assemblers to implement JIT CONCLUSION With India emerging as one of the important markets for Automobiles it is imperative for Automobile manufactures to gain production and cost efficiency. JIT would help the companies in achieving this end. The Japanese had perfected the implementation of JIT. Based on research material available it can be concluded that JIT has been successfully implemented in Automobile companies of many other countries such as United States, United Kingdom, China to name a few. Indian Manufacturing environment has huge prospects of advancement through JIT. Some of the key aspects of JIT important for the Indian industry are Total Quality management [TQM], Cellular Manufacturing, Kanban, Error Prevention to name a few. Some of the reasons for slow implementation of JIT in India can be concluded as High cost of implementation, Lack of support from suppliers, Lack of understanding or conviction in JIT techniques leading to non effective implementation. Also work culture plays a crucial role for JIT. JIT would require a work force that is flexible, can engage in cross training, and would be committed to their work on providing long term employment prospects. The Major benefits identified by the implementation of JIT are Improved Quality, reduction in inventory, increased productivity and flexibility. There is enough evidence to prove that Indian companies who have implemented JIT [at least partly] successfully have reaped the benefits. The Case study of Tractor assembly factory and Maruti are testimony for the same. Also Mahindra and Mahindra had implemented JIT techniques during the 1990’s to their advantage. To gain the benefit of JIT, Indian Automobile Industry must be willing to modify their procedures and processes References: 1) Peter Turnbul, Nick Oliver, Barry Wilkinson (1989), â€Å"Recent Developments in the UK Automotive Industry: JIT/TQC and Information systems†, Technology and Strategic Management, Vol 1 No. 2, pp. 09 2) Bo Hou, Hing Kai Chan, and Xiaojun Wang (2011), â€Å"A Case study of Just-In-Time System in the Chinese Automotive Industry†, Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering, Vol I 3) B Mahadevan, (1997),â€Å"Are Indian Companies ready for Just In Time†, Manage Rev, July-September, pp. 85-92 4) Vikas Kumar, (2010), â€Å"JIT Based Quality Management: Concepts and Implications in Indian Context†, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology Vol. 2(1), 2010,pp. 40-50 5) Dixit Garg, S. G. Deshmukh (1999), JIT Purchasing: Literature review and implications for Indian Industry, Production Planning and Control, Vol 10 , No 3, pp. 276-285 6) Vikas Kumar, Dixit garg, N P Mehta(2004), â€Å"JIT Practices in Indian Context: A survey†, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, Vol 63 ,pp. 55-662 7) Chandra, Kodali (1997),†Implementation if JIT manufacturing System: An Overview†, Productivity, Vol 38, pp. 312-321 8) Haritha Saranga, Arnab Mukherji & Janat Shah, â€Å"Determinants of Inventory Trends in the Indian Automotive Industry: An Empirical Study†, Indian Institute of Management Bangalore, India 9) Sultan Sin gh, Dixit Garg (2011),† Comparative analysis of Japanese Just-in-Time Purchasing and Traditional Indian Purchasing System†, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST), vol. 3, no. 3 10) Sultan Singh, Dixit Garg ,† Attributes in JIT Purchasing†, Akgec Journal Of Technology, vol. 2, no. 11) Jocclyn Drolet, Rene Gelinas, Real Jacob (1996),† Just-in-Time purchasing and the partnership strategy†, European Journal of Purchasing & Supply Management , vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 39-45 12) B. Mahadevan (2010),† Operations Management : Theory and Practice† 13) Frost & Sullivan , (2010), â€Å"Cellular Manufacturing makes Plant Operations Lean and Flexible†, http://www. frost. com/prod/servlet/press-release. pag? docid=202718293 14) Timothy J. Greene , Randall P. Sadowski ,† A review of cellular manufacturing assumptions, advantages and design techniques† 15) Shishir Bhat, (2008), â€Å"Cellular manufacturing-t he heart of Lean manufacturing†, Advances in Production Engineering and Management, Vol 3 , No 4 16) B. Vijaya Ramnath,C. Elanchezhian and R. Kesavan, (2010) Application of kanban system for implementing lean manufacturing (a case study), Journal of Engineering Research and Studies, Vol. I/Issue I/July-Sept. 17) Kee-hung Lai and T. C. E. Cheng , â€Å"Just-in-Time Logistics† 18) Ken alternburg, Debbie griscom, Jack hart, Frank smith, Gary wohler [1999],† Just-in-time logistics support for the Automobile industry†, Production and inventory management journal—second quarter 19) KPMG (2006), â€Å"Indian Automotive Supply Chain KPMG† 20) http://amitsinghbisht. articlesbase. com/marketing-articles/maruti-udyog-limited-managing-competition-successfully-723310. html

Addiction Does Not Discriminate Essay

Addiction does not begin with a conscious decision to become an â€Å"addict. † Because of the availability of painkillers, central nervous system depressants, and alcohol, every socio-economical group is at risk. For many it is a slow progression from needing to wanting the drug of choice. Fortunately, there are treatment plans and therapy for those who suffer from this life changing disease. The stereotypical view of a drug addict is the poor, dirty, economically challenged, bug-eyed, and most likely of non-white ethnicity. However, Jeff Bishop reports from an interview with Pamela Shepard, coordinator of the Coweta County Adult Drug Court, Andrews 2 that the addicts they deal with are anything but stereotypical. Shepard states that the people they deal with are not like those in the movies, they are moms, dads, college, students, nurses, teachers and every other profession. Then there are those who never stood a chance from the time they were born. Shepard also says that drug and alcohol addiction and other addictions are pervasive, not just in certain parts of a town or among certain groups of people. Bishop) There are several prescription medications that are addictive, however, some of the more commonly addictive and abused are painkillers, CNS Depressants, and Alcohol. The National Institutes of Health estimates that in the United States close to 20 % of people over the age of 12 have used these prescription drugs or alcohol for non-medical purposes. (Prescription Drug Abuse). Prescription pain kil lers are one of the most commonly abused medicines (Drug Addiction-Prescription). Many patients are prescribed these medicines for moderate to severe pain. If taken exactly as prescribed, pain medicine can manage quite effectively. However, chronic use or abuse of opioids can result in physical dependence and addiction (Drug Addiction-Prescription). Pain killers tend to be over prescribed by many doctors and the option of online pharmacies only adds to the problem. (Prescription Painkillers May Be Over Prescribed) According to researchers from the University of North Carolina, physicians who treat neck pain rely on medications far too often to the point of excluding other treatment options, which may be more effective and carry less risk of addiction. Prescription Painkillers May Be Over Prescribed) Andrews 3 Another highly abused medicine is CNS Depressants such as, Xanax and Valium (Drug Addiction-Prescription). These medications are typically prescribed to treat anxiety and sleep disorders (Prescription Drug Abuse). Depressants, for many, are a â€Å"way out† of reality which allows them to alter the ability to feel emotional pain or discomfort. Sometimes the â€Å"way out† feeling leads to addiction. Research continues to show that alcohol is the most abused substance. The National Survey on Drug Use and Health released that 22% of the American population binge drink and that over 16 million people are heavy drinkers (Catton). Two reasons to support this fact are availability and being legal to buy. Alcohol is woven into many activities in life, and it becomes difficult to recognize when drinking has crossed the line into addiction. Alcoholics have a difficult time setting limits on the amount consumed (Smith, Robinson & Segal). Many people experiment with drugs and alcohol with only a small percentage becoming addicted. Why do some succumb and others do not? The Genetics Science Learning Center states that it is becoming increasingly clear that genetic factors play an important role in the addiction process (Genetics Science Learning Center). There is not one gene that determines addiction; it is influenced by multiple genes as well as environmental risks. These genes and environmental factors can either add up or cancel each other out. A person’s genetic makeup does not necessarily doom them to become an addict. (Genetics Science Learning Center) Andrews 4 Environment is also a major factor in addiction (Genetics Science Learning Center). Just because a genetic map says someone is prone to addiction does not mean that it will happen, it just means that those people need to be more careful than others. Treatment plans have been in place almost as long as addiction has been a problem. There are several different treatment centers that provide multiple care plans. Through the years treatment plans have drastically changed, most defiantly for the better. History has shown that past treatments for addiction has been imprisonment, sentencing to asylums, and church-guided prayer. Of course, those methods were generally ineffective. Genetics Science Learning Center) Current methods are more based on the understanding that addiction is a disease that has many more factors than just a need to â€Å"get high†. Modern treatments involve a combination of drug and behavioral therapy, resulting in a much higher success rate. (Genetics Science Learning Center) Society tends to judge drug addiction sufferers as morally weak or may see them as if they have criminal intent. Many people do not understand that while symptoms of addiction are treatable, the disease itself is incurable. Luxury drug rehab) Many addiction sufferers will die from their disease, but those who seek help from a treatment center can treat their condition and live a wholesome life (Luxury drug rehab). Andrews 5 Truth is people who are addicted come in all shapes and sizes. It is not just the crack addict in the alley in a bad part of town. They are also the successful business men who wear business suits and successfully function in the corporate world. Addiction sufferers can also be the people who dispense and prescribe narcotics, or the stay at home parents that drive the kids to school and to ball practice every day. They could also be the elderly neighbor or maybe even a teacher (Winkel). Because there are many beliefs and stereotypes about drug addiction that are simply not true, those who suffer from addiction find it difficult to ask for help or even admit they have a problem. Addiction stereotyping is a hard habit to break but doctors and therapists try to treat addiction as the disease it is. One of the first steps in breaking the stereotype is to stop using the words habit, fix, and abuser that reinforce the stigma with negative connotations (Salsitz). Everyone is worthy of treatment and help. If people were more aware of the problems of drug addiction and how easily it could happen to anyone, he or she may be more likely to see an addicted person as someone who is worthy of help and respect. The more harshly people judge those who suffer from addiction and continue to make them feel as if they do not deserve treatment the less likely they will be to get help or even trust someone enough to confide in them about their problems. It is never a good idea to generalize people and their behavior. Many who are addicted to substances can move past their addictions and go on to lead productive lives.

Appropriate Motivational Theory For An IT Specialist Information Technology Essay

Appropriate Motivational Theory For An IT Specialist Information Technology Essay Introduction This report defines motivation and briefly analyses the content and process theories of motivation. It analyses and discusses the motivational theory relevant to information technology specialists. A fictitious case study is developed and the appropriate motivational theory is applied to address the problem in the case study. Literature Review Motivation is defined as â€Å"the cognitive, decision making process through which goal-directed behaviour is initiated, energised, and directed and maintained.†Ã‚   [ 1 ]   Luthans (1998) described motivation as â€Å"the process of stimulating people to action and to achieve a desired task.†Ã‚   [ 2 ]    Motivation is, therefore, the way that managers influence the employees’ behaviour so that they produce results in order to meet organisational goals. Motivation can be seen from two distinct but related perspectives: Goals – motivation is viewed in terms of desired goals of individuals and this is addressed by the content theories of motivation. Content theories focus on what motivates individuals and assumes that individuals have a set of needs or goals which can be satisfied through work. Thus, they are also referred to as ‘need theories.’   [ 3 ]    Decisions – motivation is viewed in terms of how an individual’s decisions affect their choice of goals. This is known as Process Theories of motivation which view the individual as an active decision-maker and the emphasis is on the actual process (method) of motivation.   [ 4 ]    The following are content theories of motivation: A. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – Maslow’s theory suggests that individuals have five types of needs, namely (in ascending order):   [ 5 ]    Physiological needs – needs that are essential for living e.g. food, water. Safety needs – people want protection against unemployment, seek comfort, shelter as well as being safeguarde d against unfair treatment. Affiliation needs – people seek attachment and a sense of belongingness and affection at work. Esteem needs – need for recognition, reputation, achievement and strength. Self-actualisation needs – Maslow defines this as â€Å"to realise your full potential and to become all that you can become.† D. McClelland’s theory of needs – McClelland measured people in three dimensions:   [ 6 ]    Need for Power (nPower) – individuals with a high need for power arouse strong emotions in them. They want to create an impact on others and make a difference in life. Need for Achievement (nAch) – individuals prefer tasks that are neither too simple nor extremely difficult but that challenge them to do their best. Need for Affiliation (nAff) – individuals that seek recognition and respect of others and wish to establish personal relationships with others. Herzberg’s 2 factor theory – Herzberg identified two sets of factors:   [ 7 ]    Hygiene factors provide job satisfaction (being content with your job) but not motivation to employees such as pay, supervision, security and working conditions. These are known as extrinsic factors as they are separate from the job itself. Motivator factor provides high levels of satisfaction, motivation and performance. It includes responsibility, achievement, growth and recognition. These are known as intrinsic factors as they stem from the job itself. The following are Process theories of motivation: J. Adams’ equity theory – This theory assumes that employees are motivated to act in situations which they perceive to be inequitable or unfair.   [ 8 ]   Thus, they are in a constant process of comparing themselves to other employees in terms of pay, terms and conditions etc.   [ 9 ]

Stelios Haji And Him Air Carrier Easyjet.com and Easycar.com Essay

Stelios Haji And Him Air Carrier Easyjet.com and Easycar.com - Essay Example Another year after easyCar was the fastest growing car Rental Company in Europe. Pleased with the exceptional performance of the company, Stelios resorted to an expansion mode. Two new sites each week in 2003-04 were targeted as the goal and to allow fresh inflow of capital, an IPO (Initial Public Offering) policy worth 250 million pounds was planned. At the beginning of the year 2003, easyCar already opened its outlets in 17 cities across five European countries (Lawrence and Solis, 2004). Stelios is one of the most flamboyant entrepreneurs of Europe picked up the pulse of the European consumers rightly. With the presence of car rental companies like Avis, Europcar, and Hertz, launching a rental car company and making the profit was not an easy task. Stelios realized the necessity of pulling something exceptional out of the scratches. From the very beginning, the emphasis of easyCar.com was to cut operating cost and provide its customers a unique price band in terms of its low level and unmatchable by any other organization operating in the market. Stelios also concentrated on product differentiation, as he understood that a perfect blend of the lower price with higher luxury (Dudik, 2000) could only make easyCar survive in the market. Moreover, the cost cut needs to be done in every aspect. As mentioned earlier that cost cut and thereby providing the customers a cheaper price is the main business strategy of easyCar.com. This cost cut has been achieved through a combination of four strategies, namely, locational strategy, operational strategy, and informational strategy. At the beginning of the year 2003 among the 55 sites spread in 17 cities across 5 European countries, only 9 were near the airport. The rest were either a railway station or a bus stop. Leasing land to open a site is far costlier near an airport than near a railway station or a bus stop.

Is rape a product of sexual desire or the exercise of power Essay

Is rape a product of sexual desire or the exercise of power - Essay Example Other theorists take a different perspective, iterating that rape is actually a product of repressed or overt sexual desire occurring in one with the inability to control their impulsive desires. Some researchers even attempt to place motivation on drug and alcohol consumption; however, there is not enough evidence that alcohol and drug dependency maintains predictive characteristics that will influence decisions to perform rapes. Research evidence on the subject tends to point toward rape as being a blend of exertion of power and dominance whilst also being influenced by cultural dynamics and the rule of law. There is not enough distinct knowledge literature on the subject that can concretely justify that rape is only a construct of desire, as there have been ample research studies conducted using diversified samples that illustrate rape is a multi-faceted activity that represents both inherent motivations for exerting power and satisfying cultural models of acceptable masculinity, with much less emphasis on rape as a product of satisfying intrinsic sexual desires. This paper describes the many intricacies of the act of rape in order to determine whether power or sexual ambition should be considered the primary motivation for sexual aggression against others. ... There are some cultural misconceptions pre-existing in Western societies where men in masculine social circles believe that men have the absolute right to demand sex when providing females with gifts or social recreation (Henslin, 2005). In cultures with very robust disparities between what is considered acceptable masculine behaviour versus feminine behaviour, it is more likely that acts of rape will be defended by male reference groups. Long-standing, acceptable cultural models that illustrate different standards for males versus females serve as the foundation for what motivates some acts of rape against others. Though there are multitudes of legalities established by democratic governance systems to define rape and its consequences for perpetrating sexual violence, the micro-level connotations of social reference groups determine the acceptability of performing sexual aggression. In this case, it is neither the exertion of power against others nor the fulfilment of whimsical sexu al desires; instead, it is the consequences of cultural judgment that serves as motivation to carry out rape. Psychologists and sociologists alike tend to agree that the power of peer assessment and criticism are powerful predictors of future behaviour for many in society (Weiten and Lloyd, 2005). Individuals who gain positive development of self-esteem and self-respect by adhering to reference group opinion would most likely justify performing violent rapes by citing social consensus. In some countries such as Nigeria, in which women are considered to be lesser entities compared to the patriarchical cultural model in place, rape is a common occurrence

A Comparison of Francis Bacon and Carolus Linnaeus' View of Nature and Essay

A Comparison of Francis Bacon and Carolus Linnaeus' View of Nature and Humanity's Relationship to It - Essay Example This frequency is enough to reflect and substantiate the view of nature as instruments. Instrumentation purposes vary from burial to horticulture, medicinal or treatment purposes, harnessing of raw materials, et cetera. The same view was described by Linnaeus; â€Å"when we follow the series of created things, and consider how providentially one is made for the sake of another, the matter comes to this, that all things are made for the sake of man† (3). While Bacon recognized nature as an instrument to human needs, Linnaeus furthered this by pointing out how every aspect of nature was designed to be made useful for humans. Nature as Local. Interestingly, Bacon implicated that nature’s instrumentation was largely determined by location. While burial was done in the Lower Region, observatories were situated in the Upper Region. Thus, nature presents a limit by which instrumentation is permissible or not advisable, and this fact was respected by the people of Salomonâ€⠄¢s House. The same fact was implicated by Carolus Linnaeus in his The Economy of Nature. His recognition of the co-location of habitat and particular species of flora and fauna was expressed through his acknowledgement of the dissimilar patterns of seasons, as well as the variance in soil composition (Linnaeus 2). Moreover, Linnaeus explicitly expressed this: â€Å"How wise, how beautiful is the agreement between the plants of every country, and its inhabitants, and other circumstances!† (2). Nature as the Framework of Imitation. Bacon’s view suggested that the workings of nature served as the mold by which humans replicate certain processes for the desired output. This imitation was explicitly detailed: â€Å"We use them likewise for the imitation of natural mines...,† or â€Å"We have heats in imitation of the sun’s and heavenly bodies’ heats, that pass divers[e] inequalities...† (Bacon 3-5). Thus, it is safe to assume that early processe s that were said to be ‘invented’ by early humans were probably forms of mimicry out of the observable natural processes. Nature as Something to be Improved. The recognition of nature’s imperfection was prevalent; yet, this imperfection was viewed by Bacon only in the context of the human’s desired output. This was pronounced in the field of horticulture wherein the practice of grafting, inoculating, and growing de-seeded plants was common (Bacon 4). Moreover, the pursuit of understanding the effects of flora and fauna on humans, whether good or bad, was inherent in designed structures or enclosures (Bacon 4). The same view was perceived by Linneaus; he went on to explain that by virtue of human reasoning, humans are able to propagate aspects of nature (i.e., vegetables), and asserted that if nature was â€Å"left to herself, could scarcely effect† (3). Thus, Linnaeus, just like Bacon, saw human intervention as the necessary means to enable nature t o become fully or wholly purposeful. Nature as an Unending Cycle of Life and Death. Linnaeus depicted this cycle through the vegetable-to-mold and mold-to-vegetable analogy. His main point was that vegetation is comprised of the same composite -- the black mold; thus, he asserted, â€Å"So that the tallest tree is, properly speaking, nothing but mold wonderfully compounded with air and water...† (Linnaeus 3). Consequently, this view implicates how inevitable and normal death is. Moreover, death is viewed a necessity for a fresh beginning in the cycle of natural creation. Nature as Designed to be Biodiverse. The implications of nature’s biodiversity were successfully presented by Linnaeus. He proffered biodiversity as the solution in controlling the population of species, the

Institutional Theory in Governmental Organizations Literature review

Institutional Theory in Governmental Organizations - Literature review Example This pressure has forced many of them to adopt new strategies such as Institutional Theory and Performance Measurement Systems, in order to overcome this pressure. Factors making Institutional Theory applicable in the Public Sector There has been an increasing pressure, for governmental and other nonprofit organizations to adopt strategies such as Institutional Theory. It is claimed that these new strategies, will make them act more like profit-making organizations than just nonprofit organizations. According to Oliver (1997, p. 697-698), governmental organizations are more vulnerable to all the three types of institutional forces than other profit-making organizations. As he explains, researchers have shown that the susceptibility of public sector organizations to institutional pressures is extremely high due to the many stakeholders and customers that it serves. All this pressure has doomed it highly necessary for the governmental organizations to adopt strategies such as Instituti onal Theory and Performance Measurement. According to Peter and Joseph (2004, p. 283-285), the pressure that the public sector is experiencing, mainly comes from the non-profit organizations that rely on the government for funding. It is argued that non-profit organizations have grown in numbers and have evolved from small-locally owned to large, national owned organizations. Therefore, these organizations are pressuring the governmental sector more. This is because they require more funds to accomplish their elevated goals and sustain their large workforce. The state is another stakeholder that is pressuring the public sector in many countries. According to Brunson and Olsen (1993, p. 44-46), many governmental and nonprofit organizations are owned by the state or the government in many countries. Therefore, it is argued that many governments place a lot of pressure on their organizations, in order to gather popularity from the citizens. As Grafstein (1992, p. 223-225), the governme ntal organizations are also currently facing another pressure from the many customers that they serve. As he points out, many profit-making organizations have been applying the concepts of intuitional theory in their firms, so as to maintain and attract more customers. According to Katz and Khan (1978, p. 147), the services and goods being provided by the private and many other profit-making organizations are far much better compared to the ones provided by the same organizations owned by the government. As Grafstein explains, this has resulted in the governmental organizations’ customers demanding the same quality goods and services as the ones provided in the profit-making organizations. Therefore, it is claimed that many governmental and nonprofit organizations are adopting the Institutional Theory in their institutions to enable them to overcome this pressure.

Answer all of them i short paragraph ( around 20 sentences) Assignment

Answer all of them i short paragraph ( around 20 sentences) - Assignment Example e understood as the next stage in which, the body starts homeostasis, which means that it tries to normalize the physiological provocation because of ongoing stress. The exhaustion phase occurs when the stress becomes chronic and immune system gets weak welcoming diseases in the body. Chronic stress affects various body systems because the first and foremost system that it assaults is the immune system. With continuous stress, the body undergoes exhaustion phase that weakens immune system, which eventually welcomes different diseases affecting various body systems. All the body systems are connected with the nervous system and when nervous system gets exhausted resisting stress resulting in lack of immunity, various body systems such as cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal system and many others. Dr. Wilder Pennfield experimented employing electrical stimulation â€Å"to map the cortex of conscious human patients†. With this experimentation, he was able to realize that our prefrontal lobes, which are liable for ‘fear’, ‘anxiety’ and ‘emotional memory’, contain a certain motor portion that keeps the ability to overrule the signals of other bodily systems. The prefrontal lobes are quite useful in foreseeing and enabling us to keep away from dangers, but also dangerous for us in case of overstimulation. The prefrontal lobes have effective role in stress management because they are involved in reflective actions that make us ready to anticipate some kind of stress and avoid it beforehand. The primary appraisal in the transactional model of stress can be described as assessment of potential threat in terms of its being stressful or not. The stressful threat is dealt by analyzing the amount of damage, anticipation of future damage and prospect of development. The secondary appraisal in the transactional model of stress is the evaluation of resources that can be employed for dealing with the potential threat. If the accessible resources are less as

Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 13

Psychology - Essay Example The first level is self centered reasoning where a child may make a moral decision based on personal likes or dislikes, potential benefit or loss and future expectations. Preschool children or elementary school children may exhibit this level. The second level is based on the needs of the individual where the needs of the individual become important without requiring empathic feelings. Some preschool children and quite a lot of school age children exhibit this level (Eisenberg, 1989). The third level of moral reasoning is based on stereotyped or approval based reasoning in which the child exhibits moral reasoning based on what s/he understands to be the social norm of good and bad. This moral reasoning may also be used to win approval from authority figures and is used by some school age children as well as adolescents. Older school age children and many adolescents jump to the level of empathic reasoning (fourth level) in which the individual can used empathy, the idea of role playing and understanding the position of others to make moral decisions. At this level, they may be aware of the emotional response of doing good things i.e. a positive feeling and not helping others i.e. feeling guilty (Eisenberg, 1989). The fifth and sixth levels are partly internalised principles and strongly internalised principles. Under partly internalised principles the justification for the actions taken by a child are based on internalised values such as privacy, the rights of others, equality etc. and these ideas may not be clearly formed in the mind of the child. This operation level can be observed for a few adults and in some adolescents. With strongly internalised principles, the moral decisions made are always based on feelings that have been strongly internalised such as a need to improve the social conditions, or even the idea of fairness and even handedness. However, such a level is rarely found in young individuals. Overall, I feel that the model

Ritual practices Essay Example for Free

Ritual practices Essay John A. Grim of Yale University explained that the term â€Å"indigenous† is a generalized reference to the thousands of small scale societies who have distinct languages, kinship systems, mythologies, ancestral memories and homelands. Much of these indigenous cultures were found in North America long before the European settlers arrived. Some of these cultures had their own way of living and unique ways of worshiping their gods and practicing rituals. Diversity in the belief of the divine, their spirituality and nature would be the most identifiable aspect, wherein some believe in reincarnation, concept of dual divinity and the â€Å"interrelationship of the microcosm of the body with the macrocosm of the larger world† (Grim, 2006), while others believe in kinship in animals and humans. The advent of modern civilization proved to be devastating to these indigenous cultures when natives where forcibly converted to Christianity leading to high suicide rates due to the suppression of their religion and culture. Many were sold into slavery and forced to live in reservations, therefore limiting their freedom to interact with nature leading to the death of some of their rituals and customs. With the passage of time, some of these indigenous beliefs were incorporated into the different contemporary religions were today’s respective native families attend to. Personal convictions consist of the combination of traditional beliefs with Christian elements. Some existing Native American tribes still practice rituals, rain dances, chanting and drum beating within the context of Christianity. No matter how great the difference in religious practices between life then and the contemporary times, indigenous people still believe that the past still lives in the present; as John Grim puts it, that central to indigenous traditions is an awareness of the integral and whole relationship of symbolic and material life. Ritual practices and the cosmological ideas which undergird society cannot be separated out as an institutionalized religion from the daily round of subsistence practices. Sources: 1) Native Religions Development (2006), www. religioustolerance. org [internet] http://www. religioustolerance. org/nataspir. htm Date Accessed: 17 January 2007 2) Grim, John A. (2006), Indigenous Traditions and Ecology (web page) http://environment. harvard. edu/religion/religion/indigenous/index. html Date Accessed: 17 January 2007

Social Consequences of New Media

Social Consequences of New Media Identify the most consequential features of ‘new media’ and assess how and why sociological theory and concepts deal with these. Abstract This essay establishes the background of new media technologies within the context of their historical development. The argument is then addressed towards the largest social consequences tial outcomes of new technologies as through analysis of the augmentation and facilitation of social communities and online interest groupsthe key consequential developments of new media, culminating in the premise that online community augmentation is the most crucial in order to provide social structures for the existence and promotion of other new media consequences. This argument is then placed into a framework of related theoretical endeavour and elucidates salient arguments in order to establish the premise within contemporary academia. The essay closes with a summation of the discussion along with concluding comments. The term ‘new media’ has gained a great deal of currency over the past two decades. It is also worthy of note that the term has gained status as a collective, singular noun form as if it was in reference to a single, coherent entity. This practice has become increasingly common, not only in marketing circles and journalistic reportage but also in the world of academia. Whilst the term in itself is incredibly vague, the utterance of such increasingly implies solidarity of existence as a totally formed and fully achieved social and material practice. Whilst there is little truth in this premise, this nature of conduct continues, and in doing so undermines development of coherent debate. Throughout this paper, the term ‘new media’ will be applied to the technological practice, development and subsequent social construction of those technologies which have been borne of internet and digitally associated technologies. In addition to this, it must be pointed out that it would at best be truculent, and at worst benighted, to talk of the consequences of new media in terms of cause and effect; this does not do the subject justice nor does it recognise the transience of the situation. It is for these reasons that throughout the course of this critique the consequences of new media technologies will be catalogued in a historically linear form in order to demonstrate the manner in which such technologies lead to further technological developments, each built upon the innovation of the previous. This essay will address the inception of those technologies which have now come to be known as new media and establish them within a historical framework with particular e mphasis placed on the development of the World Wide Web. Scholarly endeavour on these matters is subsequently placed into context of existing examples of new media development, along with their societal consequences. These arguments are then consolidated with broader, underpinning theories which argue for the case of community augmentation as the primary consequence of new media technologies. The essay then closes with a summary of key points raised with according conclusions. Current developments in new media technologies can be traced back to the inception of internet technologies and the consequential developments which ensued. When John Licklider joined ARPA, Leonard Klienrock was already developing ideas for ‘packet sending’. This was a method of sending information in broken up pieces, or ‘packets’. The information would be reassembled at the other end. Because the files were broken up before sending, they would be more difficult to eavesdrop, therefore of great appeal to ARPA. In 1965 an experiment saw computers in Berkley and MIT linked over a low-speed dial-up telephone line, forming the first ever Wide Area Network (Sadar, 2000). ARPA scientists continued the development of networking protocols and in 1972 TCP/IP was born. This would allow different networks to communicate with each other. Now it was simply a matter of time and growth, as at this stage computers consisted of large mainframes that were not available to the majority of people. In 1982, whilst ARPANET was still the backbone of the system, they adopted TCP/IP. This is considered as the birth of the internet; an international network of computers all using the standard. Expansion of the system was also occurring due to advances in computer technology and in 1984 the number of online hosts was over 1000. Governments started using and promoting the system for educational purposes and by 1987 there were 10.000 hosts (over the following two years this number had swelled to 100,000) (Baym, 1998). The year 1991 saw the launch of the World Wide Web (WWW) which consisted of a network of searchable and retrievable sites that employ the use of Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). This protocol automatically searched for the site and retrieved it for automatic viewing. Tim Berners-Lee and other scientists had been developing ideas for making data easily retrievable since 1989 and several browser/editor programs were made shortly after. This formed the basis of what would become new media technology as it is now known (Baym, 1998).An important consequence of the proliferation of new media is the digital divide. In economic terms, the digital divide emphasises the gap between those with privilege and those without. Those without suffer a more limited access to the means of information distribution that new media has come to be synonymous with; internet access, email, smartphones, etc. The consequences of this are broad reaching since they can affect people not just on their individual access to digital information services but also by geographical location or by their access to social entities such as businesses, educational services and public services. This gap also exists between nation states and is known on an international scale as the global digital divide (Halford Savage, 2010). The historically recent rise in new media has also prompted an interest in the academic study of mobilities; an area of the social sciences which was largely disregarded until the phenomenon. The turn in attitude is due largely, if not wholly, to the ubiquity of locative media and mobile communications in increasingly novel forms (Urry, 2000). These new technologies are augmenting and supplementing the manner in which members of society communicate with one another, and indeed their locations, on the move. Such ICTs (Information and Communications Technologies) are increasing in ubiquity, as increasing numbers of people begin to carry smart technologies with them, and rising numbers of architectural structures and public borders are becoming embedded with responsive entities which can relay pertinent information. Transport structures, public service buildings, architecture of interest, etc. are becoming increasingly embedded with satellite connectivity, GPS, responsive software, sens ors and other interactive data transfer forms (Urry, 2004). It is uncontroversial to argue that the most important and far-reaching consequence of new media is the increased ability for social and community forming; the world has witnessed a massive rise in online groups and communities. For many people it is now possible to be part of multiple online groups simultaneously. Much of the general debate around the value of the virtual communitiesdebate which surrounds new media also highlights the increase in digital representation and through subcultures. From the early days of online chatrooms and social portals which existed entirely in textual form, the development into widespread social media has brought with it a sharp rise in both the globalisation of culture and digital representation of the self through online platforms. Debate on such representation has become which have developed from new media technologies has become polarised in academic debateia. On the one hand is the groupA strong argument in scholarly endeavour which argues maintains that the internet has created a new platform for with which to resurrect traditional notions of community (perceived as fading in ‘real life’) which could be perceived as diminishing in modern culture; this and is a positive step towards achieving a new global solidarity, particularly with the co ncurrent development of cultural globalisation. The opposition to this school of thought maintain that cyberspace detracts attention from the issues faced in ‘real life’ community and is therefore erodes it. This point of view is eloquently allegorised in the opening page of Jean Baudrillard’s Simulations (1983). Baudrillard paraphrases the Jorge Luis Borges tale of cartographers who create a map of the empire to such detail that it perfectly covers the land it represents. Whilst the map is celebrated the land underneath it declines into wasteland. This is only brought to the attention of the people when the map itself erodes, revealing an uninhabitable â€Å"desert of the real† (Baudrillard, 1983). It is uncontroversial to argue that the most important and far-reaching social consequence of new media is the increased ability for the formation of communities which were previously unavailable. These community groups are salient and consistent throughout the development of new media technology and additionally it is now possible for many to be part of multiple societal groups simultaneously. Such communities are so influential because they underpin and promulgate the existence of other key elements of new media technology development, such as social change, cultural globalisation, digital identity, the mobilisation of smart technologies, etc. Theorists Wellman and Gulia argue that the current debate on virtual communities is problematic for several reasons. They state that the polarisation of opinion makes the debate Manichean, and also that a sense of the history of community is absent. In addition to this, they contend that the debate on virtual communities is largely unscholarly and is parochial in the sense that it forces a divide between ‘real life’ communities and those online. They go on to say that the notion of a traditional community is nostalgic and saturated with myth (Wellman Gulia, 1999). Whilst Wellman Gulia make some fair points, certainly the polarisation of the online debate (and also the separation of online life and real-life in theory) the two extremes of opinion have produced a substantial amount of research on the matter. When defining community it is useful to look at the work of German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies, who developed the terms Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. Gemeinschaft (translated roughly as ‘community’) is described by Tonnies as traditional community, characterised by bonding through kinship, friendship, shared religious beliefs and community loyalty. Tonnies termed modern, capitalist societies as Gesellschaft (community, or association), where social interactions and relationships are much less personal, more calculated and contractual, where the society experiences increased isolation of individuals living within it (Tonnies, 1988). There is also important work regarding broader communities, in particular Benedict Anderson’s theories concerning nations, or as he terms â€Å"imagined communities† (Anderson, 1983). Since the members of a nation cannot possibly interact with (or have knowledge of) everyone within that nation, certain symbolic resources and rituals (or as Anderson refers â€Å"invented traditions†) are utilised to coalesce people and create a sense of shared identity (flags, national anthems, etc.). Anderson maintains that these types of communities depend on their members believing in them, and are maintained through the shared practice of cultural customs and devices (Anderson, 1983). These Current definitions of digital community, whilst useful, suffer the same drawbacks as most in that they can be taken to extremes within their own boundaries, and do little to draw the line as to how far to go. A useful analogy is presented by David Bell (2001), who asks â€Å"I drive a car. To what extent could I argue that I belong to a ‘community of car drivers’?†. Bell goes on to explain that his car driving community satisfies all aspects of popular community definitions. Identity as a ‘car driver’ is institutionalised by a driving licence, which not only provides certain privileges but also acts as a proof of identity in a broader sense, and this is a commonality with other car drivers. Bell continues to describe a ‘set of knowledges’ which all car drivers possess (of driving, of the road, etc.), some of them formalised and some tacit. Whilst the Highway Code formalises one strand of such knowledge there also exists a tacit und erstanding in the form of driving etiquette and the like. The final point Bell makes is that of facilitation. The car also facilitates his membership of off-road communities (Bell, 2001). Whether or not Bell’s example does satisfy a definition of community is still debatable, but it does raise some important points when trying to define community, especially when comparing or contrasting to those which exist online. The same terms of Bell’s analogy could just as simply be applied to MySpace or EBay, both of which have had a far-reaching and consequential impact on capitalist societies; MySpace in many ways became the prototype of digital self-representation, with its ability for photographic and thematic customisation, coupled with a platform for creative endeavour or the broadcast of opinions. This paved the way for a broad range of online social media platforms which developed or augmented the original MySpace model. Conversely, EBay provided a platform for commerce which laid down an archetype for online trading. The eBay model for the first time allowed people to generate income through private auctioning on a global scale, in many cases providing en tire businesses to operate solely within the confines of the site. Regardless of their achieved scope and proliferation of use, but would the question remainsthat mean regarding whether or not that these ‘created communities’ satisfy a Gemeinschaft definition of community, and even if they did this would not necessarily make them communities in the nostalgic sense. , would that make them a community in the nostalgic sense? Bell explores this matter by offering a distinction between the terms (sometimes used synonymously by critical theorists) ‘community’ and ‘sub-culture’: Clearly there’s a slippage between the two words, both taken to mean the same thing – Baym’s own work has used both to describe the same group of online soap fans, for example. But I think that the two words have very different connotations, so I started to wonder where the boundary between terms like these lies. (Bell, 2001:101) In this statement Bell makes a valid point. In the labelling of factions and groups as ‘communities’ more often than not the term either becomes encapsulate, including a whole host of assemblies which are perhaps better described in another category, or becomes exclusive to the point of rejection of all those groups which fail to satisfy the nostalgic and seemingly outdated notion of traditional community. With these comments in mind it seemsIt is important to establish a boundary by which to sector those groups which, although they may satisfy certain aspects of community ‘new technology’ consequences, are not engaged in sufficient humanistic interaction to be defined as such. This does not present an immediate problem as there are many online groups which fit this description and do not label themselves as communities, but remain consequential of new media. However, the emphasis on human interaction seems to be the key to which distinctions can be drawn between online organisations and actual communities. One notorious commentator on the subject, Howard Rheingold, states just that: Virtual communities are social aggregations that emerge from the net when enough people carry on†¦public discussions long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form webs of personal relationships in cyberspace. (Rheingold, 1993:12) Since traditional community is no longer possible in its pure form, due predominantly to capitalism and globalisation, people have searched out the areas of their community which they now lack. Humans , being social animals (and at best, survivalists) have utilised the internetnew media in tandem with the development of technology to maintain and keep control of the things which they inherently hold dear. In this case, the elements of community which contemporary society have consequentially eroded with new media are also supported by new media. These consequences are now are now to be found online in forums, groups and interactive spaces. New media technology The internet does not house communities, but symbiotically supports those areas of community which no longer exist outside of the webof such developments, and arguably, due to such developments. Online platforms such as MySpace or Facebook provide many services, but do not create a social network for its users. Rather, new medi a they allow users to supplement their existing social networks with online support. Furthermore online Interactions can take place which will allow families who are miles apart to keep in touch in ways that have previously been impossible, thus they are solving previous difficulties pertaining to traditional community, predominantly that of distance and (the resulting factor of) time, and strengthening these communities in ways that previously could not be achieved. It is now possible for community to become reinforced by new media technologies in ways that were previously impossible, thus strengthening the weak elements that existed in the Gemeinschaft-style structure. Utilising technology, traditional communities are able to function over distance in real-time, in cybernetic unison. References Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism, London: Verso. Baudrillard, J. (1983) Simulations, USA: Semiotext[e] Baym, N. (1998) ‘The emergence of an on-line community’, Cited in S.Jones (ed.) Cybersociety 2.0: revisiting computer-mediated communication and community, London: Sage. Bell, D. (2001) An Introduction to Cybercultures, London: Routledge. Halford, S. Savage, M. (2010) ‘Reconceptualizing Digital Social Inequality’, Information, Communication and Society 13 (7): 937-55. [online] Available from: www.cresc.ac.uk/sites/default/files/Paper No 86_0.pdf (Accessed 18/11/20130). Rheingold, H. (1993). The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. New York: Addison-Wesley. Sardar, Z. (2000) ‘Alt.civilizations.faq: cyberspace as the darker side of the West’, Cited in Bell, D. and Kennedy, B. M. (eds.) The Cybercultures Reader, London: Routledge. Tonnies, F. (1988) Community and Society (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft). (C. P. Loomis, Trans.). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. (Original work published in 1887). John Urry (2000) Sociology Beyond Societies London: Routledge. John Urry (2004) ‘Mobile Sociology’, ch.13 in Frank Webster (ed.), The Information Society Reader London: Routledge. Wellman, B. Gulia, M. (1999) ‘Virtual communities as communities: net surfers don’t ride alone’, Cited in Smith, M. Lollock, P. (eds.) Communities in Cyberspace, London: Routledge. Bibliography Benton, T. Craib, I. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science: The Philosophical Foundations of Social Thought. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Benton, T. Craib, I. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science: The Philosophical Foundations of Social Thought, Basingstoke: Palgrave. Castells, M. (2001) The Internet Galaxy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Craib, I. (1997) Classical Social Theory: An Introduction to the Thought of Marx, Weber, Durkheim, Simmel. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Flew, F. (2002) New Media. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Lievrouw, L.A. (2006) ‘New Media Design Development: Diffusion of Innovations Vs. Social Shaping of Technology’, in Lievrouw, L. Livingstone, S. Handbook of New Media: Social Shaping and Social Consequences, London: Sage Lister, M., Dovey, J., Giddings, S., Grant, I., Kieron, K. (2003) New Media: A Critical Introduction. London: Routledge. May, C. (2002) The Information Society: a sceptical view. Cambridge: Polity. Sayer, D. (1991) Capitalism Modernity: An Excursus on Marx Weber. London: Routledge. Webster, F. (2006) Theories of the Information Society, 3rd edition. Routledge. Woolgar, S. (ed.) (2002) Virtual Society?Oxford: Oxford University Press.References Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism, London: Verso. Baudrillard, J. (1983) Simulations, USA: Semiotext[e] Baym, N. (1998) ‘The emergence of an on-line community’, Cited in S.Jones (ed.) Cybersociety 2.0: revisiting computer-mediated communication and community, London: Sage. Bell, D. (2001) An Introduction to Cybercultures, London: Routledge. Rheingold, H. (1993). The Virtual Community: Homesteading on the Electronic Frontier. New York: Addison-Wesley. Sardar, Z. (2000) ‘Alt.civilizations.faq: cyberspace as the darker side of the West’, Cited in Bell, D. and Kennedy, B. M. (eds.) The Cybercultures Reader, London: Routledge. Tonnies, F. (1988) Community and Society (Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft). (C. P. Loomis, Trans.). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. (Original work published in 1887). Wellman, B. Gulia, M. (1999) ‘Virtual communities as communities: net surfers don’t ride alone’, Cited in Smith, M. Lollock, P. (eds.) Communities in Cyberspace, London: Routledge. Bibliography Castells, M. (2001) The Internet Galaxy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Webster, F. (2006) Theories of the Information Society, 3rd edition. Routledge. Lievrouw, L.A. (2006) ‘New Media Design Development: Diffusion of Innovations Vs. Social Shaping of Technology’, in Lievrouw, L. Livingstone, S. Handbook of New Media: Social Shaping and Social Consequences, London: Sage May, C. (2002) The Information Society: a sceptical view. Cambridge: Polity. Flew, F. (2002) New Media. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Benton, T. Craib, I. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science: The Philosophical Foundations of Social Thought. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Craib, I. (1997) Classical Social Theory: An Introduction to the Thought of Marx, Weber, Durkheim, Simmel. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sayer, D. (1991) Capitalism Modernity: An Excursus on Marx Weber. London: Routledge. Benton, T. Craib, I. (2001) Philosophy of Social Science: The Philosophical Foundations of Social Thought, Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Fate :: Fate Destiny Essays

Fate Webster defines fate as a â€Å" a power thought to control all events and impossible to resist† â€Å"a persons destiny.† This would imply that fate has an over whelming power over the mind. This thing called fate is able to control a person and that person has no ability to change it. Its been proven time and time again that the human mind can over come any obstacle. An asset to the mind is a persons will. With the combination of a person’s mind and their will to decide their own destiny this thing called fate can be over come.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some people say that a person’s fate is pre destined. That nothing they do in life is by accident and everything that you do has been decided by a higher power. If that were so than why would this being of higher intelligence waste his time on some that he planned out. He already knows how it going to turnout so why even blow centuries of time watching this boring play. I don’t know about you but I someone tells me the ending to the movie then why waste time waiting for what you already know is going to happen. Another popular opinion is that a persons will is stronger than that of any barrier put in his way. That this thing called fate is only an obstacle that can be over passed just by the implement of a person’s mind. This breed of people believes that nothing can control all events and that the mind can resist all temptations if properly trained. I myself have different theory. That yes there is a higher power that puts fate into play. He sits there and watches how his cine will play out. Unlike others I ask myself a question wouldn’t a being of higher power want a little drama a little break from the norm. I believe that he gave us a thing called free will. The ability to put into play our own set of events. If I was a director and I didn’t have to worry about time or money, I would like to see how my movie turned out if I wrote the beginning and let the actors decide the ending.

Of Mice of Men :: Essays Papers

Mice of Men The novel Of Mice and Men, by John Steinbeck, is about two ranch hands, George and Lennie. George is a small, smart-witted man, while Lennie is a large, mentally- handicapped man. They are trying to raise enough money to buy their own ranch, by working as ranch hands. During the setting of the story, they are at a ranch whose owner’s name is Curley. It is in this setting that the novel reveals that the main theme is death and loss. Lennie accidentally killing all of his pets establishes that the theme of this novel is death and loss. These pets consist of mice, dogs, kittens, etc. Lennie loves to feel and pet animals, but he does not know his own strength. He kills them without really noticing what he has done, until George tells him that he did something wrong. After being scolded, Lennie is very remorseful about what he did. Once, after being yelled at Lennie says, â€Å"I pinched their heads a little and then they was dead- because they were so little (13).† Lennie’s remorse is probably more for upsetting George than it is for actually killing the animal. Another way that death and loss is evidenced by this novel is when Lennie killed Curley’s wife. When Lennie is in the barn (after killing his new puppy) Curley’s wife came into the barn and came on to Lennie. Lennie not knowing what was happening let her lull him into touching her hair. To Lennie it was like petting any other animal. Curley’s wife became flustered when Lennie became scared and would not let go of her hair. She started to scream and Lennie tried to cup her mouth, which concluded in him killing her. Lennie was truly remorseful after this action. Soon after killing her Lennie can be heard saying to himself, â€Å"I done a bad thing. I done another bad thing (121).† The final confirmation of the death and loss theme occurred to George, not Lennie. After going to the place where George had told him to go if anything went wrong, Lennie lays and waits in the brush for George to come get him. What Lennie wasn’t expecting was George to come with a posse of ranch hands with him.

Judgments of Conduct in Sense and Sensibility Essay -- Austen Sense Se

Sense and Sensibility is an elegant story that portrays the advantages of the first over the second, as manifested between two sisters of opposing temperaments, one of whom loves wisely and the other passionately. Set in London and its surrounding countryside, the story relates how Elinor, the eldest of Mrs. Dashwood's daughters, and Marianne, the second eldest, share in the agony of tragic love. In the opening of the book, Mrs. Dashwood and her three daughters are forced to move to a new and smaller abode, as her husband's death left her fairly unwealthy. During their transition, the Dashwood's stayed with her step-son and his wife, Mr. and Mrs. John Dashwood. It is there where Elinor, practical and conventional, met and fell in love with Edward Ferrars, Mrs. John Dashwood's brother. One rainy morning, after being settled in their new cottage at Barton, Marianne, emotional and sentimental, was brought home from her walk with a sprained ankle by Willoughby, a dashing young man in his mid-twenties. Marianne immediately fell for Willoughby and he for her and in the following days and weeks he was invariably found at Barton. Another new friend to the family, Colonel Brandon watched the formation of this couple with sadness as he too, had fallen in love with Marianne. To her distress, while on an extended trip to London with friend and neighbor, Mrs. Jennings, Marianne suffered a broken heart upon hearing that Willoughby was concerned for his financial well-being and therefore had bestowed his affections elsewhere. A few months prior to the trip, Elinor learned that Edward was privately engaged to another woman, Lucy, but was bound to secrecy by this woman herself, who was not aware of Elinor's attachment to him. So while tr... ...d, representing sense, tried to relate her imagination and her feelings to her judgment and to the tradition on which society was based. She knew how to govern her feelings as she responded calmly and serenely in the most distressing circumstances. Elinor was more concerned for the feelings of others, but Austen indicates that Elinor suffers a great deal, and her thoughts were often diverted from her own misery to the afflictions of her sister, for whom she had a great deal of compassion. Jane Austen pulled off her aim as a matchmaker and true love triumphed as sense gave way to sensibility and sensibility gave way to sense. In the novel, Austen expresses a universal truth which is the key to her character development-- 'the imaginations of other people will carry them away to form wrong judgments of our conduct, and to decide on it by slight appearances'. Â  

Book Report for Maniac Magee

Zachary Roderiques Book Report on Maniac Magee Which of Maniac’s activities do you think are impossible? Why? Which do you think are possible but not probable? I don’t think any of Maniac’s activities are impossible because he is capable of learning how to do every single one of them. I think the one activity that may be possible but not probable is the tying of Cobble’s Corners knot, because over many decades no one else could ever accomplish this feat. Would you like a friend like Maniac? Why or why not? No, I would not like a friend like Maniac because he would be better than me at everything and I don’t think I would feel like I was good at anything if I hung around him. Another reason is because all of the friends he had in the story were only his friends for a short amount of time. He always seemed to leave his friends behind and I would not like it if left me behind. Do you think maniac is a good nickname for Jeffery? Why or why not? Would you like that nickname? Why or why not? I think Maniac is a good nickname for Jeffery because he can do almost anything and everything he does cannot be done by others. I would not like that nickname because I would not want to be known for doing everything like a maniac. I also think that everyone thinks a maniac is a crazy person, so I would not want people thinking I was crazy! In which of Maniac’s homes would you most like to live? Why? Least? Why? n what ways can people be considered to be members of a minority group? People can be considered members of a minority based on the colorof their skin, their ethnic background, the religion they practice, their income, their gender, how old or young they are, if they are handicapped, their marriage status, their education level, and their sexual preference.

A modern version of Shakespeare’s original play Essay

Baz Luhzmans â€Å"Romeo and Juliet† was produced in 1997 the film is a modern version of Shakespeare’s original play. This essay will analyse the techniques used, the effect the opening and its successes on a modern audience. The film opens in an unconventional, modern way in order to catch the attention of the audience, for example in the starting scene a T. V screen moves towards us (the audience) and at the same time it expands till it actually covers the whole screen. The effect this has on audience is into a serious and concerning mood. I was also very impressed how the director modernized the scene. I believe what the director was trying to do was to stay faithful to the Shakespeare original play, so in other words he didn’t change the scene or the play but he showed every aspect of the play in a way so that the audience could relate to this scene, for example the director uses a News caster to read out the prologue, while Shakespeare original play used a narrator to read out the prologue. The director headlines in magazines, newspapers and forecast to show key words in the prologue, for example in the News forecast they have a caption which is â€Å"Star crossed lovers†. The Characters are portrayed in an interesting and contrasting manner. For example the Montague’s are portrayed as childish, humorous, unorganized and this characteristics is believed to be a stereotype of adolescents, so that the audience can relate to this characters and the lifestyles of the characters, what the director also does is he makes the addressees relate to the Montague’s in order to gain the audience sympathy for the Montague’s. While the Capulet’s are shown as mature, more organized, they are dressed in suits and also the Capulet’s characters display consistent behavior, they are always enraged, always ready to do battle and always out for blood, and this characteristics is also another typical stereotype but only this time this characters are portrayed as the Mafia. The director portrays them as evil and insincerity because they wear religious items while they live Sinful lives. The effect that the contradiction of the Montagues and Capulets has on the audience is it makes the audience realise that there will be conflict. The director portrays Montague’s as humorous so this makes the audience laugh and he shows the Capulet’s as powerful evil hypocrites so this makes the audience more or less despite them, as they are the villains of the play. The setting is carefully chosen to show rage and anger for example the scene at the petrol station conflict happens, petrol station symbolises fire and fire symbolises rage, danger and conflict. What the director once again does is he stays loyal to the Shakespeare’s original play but once again modernises for example, the original play was set in Verona while Baz Luhzmans â€Å"Romeo and Juliet† is set in U. S. A Verona beach. The effect on audience is the scene is set in L. A to attract a young audience so that they can associate to the familiar setting. The language used in the film helps create a successful opening, in the Shakespeare’s original play he used a narrator to read out the prologue, the prologue is basically a summery of the play, there is few key words in the prologue which are the following † New mutiny†, â€Å"Take their lives†, â€Å"Star crossed lovers†, â€Å"Ancient grudge†, â€Å"Fair Verona†, the director uses this key words from the Shakespeare’s originals plays prologue and uses this words as headlines, and he also uses this key words as captions in several different scene for example the starting scene at the news cast the headline is â€Å"Star crossed lovers†, The effect this had on audience was it attract the audience attention to important aspects of the play. And I believe what the director was trying to do was to reinforce the spoken prologue in the captions he used instead of reciting it as Shakespeare’s did once again he modernized a scene in Shakespeare’s original play but still stays faithful to it. There was a scene in a petrol station, in the petrol station there was a sign which was â€Å"Phoenix, add more fuel to your fire†, the language used here draws our attention further to the families conflict because we associate this words with anger and rage, because the first word Phoenix is associated with fire and hell. What the director does through out the film is he basically gives us the audience clues on what’s going to happen next.

Arthur Miller Essay

Between 1949 and 1953, Arthur Miller wrote two of his most famous plays. Both plays dealt with major problems in society. The main characters of the plays were similar. Also, the supporting characters of both plays were alike. Arthur Miller’s plays Death of a Salesman and The Crucible are similar in many ways. The main purpose of both Death of a Salesman and The Crucible was to show major problems in American society. In Death of a Salesman, Arthur Miller was trying to show the impossibilities of the American Dream. In The Crucible, he was trying to show how society is intolerant toward others and is prone to hysteria. Both plays dealt with society defeating the average, hard-working man. Each play showed a society that was full of deceit and liars. In both of these plays, society was depicted as an evil thing that would overpower the average person and create an unjust world. The main characters of Death of a Salesman and The Crucible, Willy Loman and John Proctor, were alike in many ways. Both of these men had extramarital affairs, and in both cases, the affairs ended up destroying their lives. Both of these men were hard-working, average men who were just trying to make a good life for themselves and their families. Names were important to both men, and they both took pride in their names. In both cases, many decisions the two made were because of their family members. One large similarity between Willy and John was the fact that they both eventually died, and the death was partly their choice. Both men could have avoided death, but instead, they chose to die because they believed it was the correct thing to do. In these two plays, there were also many similarities between the supporting characters. In both plays, children had much more power than they normally do. In Death of a Salesman, Willy’s son controlled much of his life. In The Crucible, the girls, led primarily by Abigail Williams, caused many people to be hanged, and even more to be imprisoned. Also, both John and Willy had wives that were very loyal to them throughout their lives and supported them until the end. Both plays showed a figure of power, seen as Howard in one play and Judge Danforth in the other. In both plays, the main character had a friend who stood up for them at the end. Willy had Charley, who had been his best friend for a long time, and John had Reverend Hale, who tried to prevent John’s death. There are many similarities between characters in the two plays. Death of a Salesman and The Crucible are alike in many ways. Arthur Miller created similar characters in both plays. He used both to show the many things wrong in America. These two plays are both powerful pieces of literature that should be read and appreciated by all people.Sources: Death of a Salesman and The Crucible by Arthur Miller Arthur Miller Essay Can the audience be certain that Abigail is pretending when she has her fits (pages thirty nine-forty and ninety one-ninety six) In sixteen ninety two there was an outbreak of hangings for witchcraft. Arthur Miller based â€Å"The Crucible† on the events that lead to this to create an allegory of the events that took place in the nineteen fifties, when Joseph McCarthy was the head of the investigations of the senate committee on internal security. When Abigail her fit on page ninety two, Miller leaves the audience confused because of the other girls’ reaction to what Abigail does and also to Mary Warren’s accusations. When Abigail starts imitating Mary Warren the girls copy Abigail and start using it to accuse Mary Warren of â€Å"sending a shadow on them,† so Abigail used its sudden entrance into the court to stop Mary Warren from telling the truth about what happened in the woods. The way they chose to accuse her was by imitating Mary Warren. â€Å"Mary Warren (screaming out at the top of her lungs, and raising her fists): Stop it!! Girls (raising their fists): Stop it!! † Arthur Miller adds more uncertainty by making other girls leading into the fits. This happens when Betty wakes upon page thirty nine and starts a fit off by saying, â€Å"I saw Goody Howe with the Devil! † This is effective because Betty is apparently ill at the time that this happens then â€Å"As she is speaking BETTY is rising from the bed, a fever in her eyes, and picks up the chant. † Then in a fit on page ninety two, Mercy Lewis says â€Å"Mercy Lewis (pointing): It’s on the beam! Behind the rafter! † This is when the bird has appeared and Danforth asks where it was. This is an effective strategy to employ and these points in the play because it keeps the audience guessing and wanting to know what will happen next. Mary Warren is present during both the fits that Abigail has, although in the second one on page ninety two she is the one both accusing and being accused. At the end of the fit Mary Warren has a real stress induced fit â€Å"only MARY is left there, staring up at the `bird’, screaming madly. All watch her terrified by this evident fit. † The fact that Mary Warren has now joined in isn’t the only thing that makes this effective it is that she has just changed her mind after being so resolute on telling the truth, also that this implicates Proctor as being a witch because he is the one that took her to the court. In the sixteen nineties the buildings were furnished in a minimalist fashion because people couldn’t afford much more that the essentials, for example in Betty’s bedroom would have a bed a little chest of drawers for her clothes and a chair. There would also be a few windows. Therefore it would be quite shocking seeing it filled up with mainly young girls, then when all the girls suddenly start shouting it would be overwhelming and quite confusing for an audience member seeing this for the first time. However, When Mary Warren is persuaded to go to court she seems scared of Abigail as she says; â€Å"She’ll kill me for sayin’ that! † The audience also know that Abigail has lied from the beginning about what happened in the woods, as Abigail told her uncle that all they did was dance but then Betty says â€Å"you drank a charm to kill Goody Proctor! Also in the same conversation Abigail tells Mary Warren to carry on lying, â€Å"Let either of you breathe a word about the other things and I will come to you in the black of some terrible night and I will bring pointy reckoning that will shudder you. † When the girls copy Abigail they never catch on straight away they always take a while to join in, such as in the court room on page ninety two Abigail has to repeat what Mary Warren says twice before the girls start repeating as well. â€Å"The Crucible† is an allegory of what was happening in America in the nineteen fifties. When Joseph McCarthy became a senator lots of people started having trouble with being accused of being a communist. It was mainly actors, actresses and writers that were accused but once you were accused there were only two things you could do to stop yourself from being blacklisted, which meant you would find it very hard to work again, you could either admit to being a communist and still be black listed or you could do the easier thing to prove you weren’t a communist which was accuse someone else. This is very similar to â€Å"The Crucible† as Abigail feels she has to accuse Tituba so that she isn’t accused of which craft. The only two differences when you were put in this situation ware that you wouldn’t be hung for being a communist you just wouldn’t be able to find work very easily. The other difference was that in Salem you had to be a witch to be hung, whereas in America you had to be a communist. There are certain similarities between Salem and today, such as today, lots of people treat Muslims differently because other people have turned Muslims into a scapegoat and projected everything wrong with the society that they live in and been blamed on a particular group of people, which in our case is Muslims. This prejudice against particular groups of people often isn’t fair. In America they projected their fears onto communists because they were that the communist uprising in Russia would spread to America, but now we are worried because a few Muslims out of millions decided to become suicide bombers and the government used them as a means to justify the war in Iraq by demonising the main faith in that country. Overall I think that the audience wouldn’t be able to whether Abigail was pretending while she was having her fits unless they had seen â€Å"The Crucible† before, because Arthur Miller uses a lot of tactics to confuse or scare the audience.